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Artificial Intelligence Industry In China
The expert system industry in individuals’s Republic of China is a quickly establishing multi-billion dollar market. The roots of China’s AI development began in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms highlighting science and innovation as the country’s primary efficient force.
The preliminary stages of China’s AI advancement were slow and came across significant challenges due to lack of resources and skill. At the beginning China was behind the majority of Western nations in regards to AI advancement. A majority of the research was led by scientists who had actually received higher education abroad. [1]
Since 2006, the federal government of individuals’s Republic of China has actually steadily developed a nationwide agenda for expert system advancement and became one of the leading countries in artificial intelligence research study and advancement. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) launched its thirteenth five-year strategy in which it aimed to become a global AI leader by 2030. [3]
The State Council has a list of “nationwide AI teams” consisting of fifteen China-based business, consisting of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation required] Each business needs to lead the advancement of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial acknowledgment, software/hardware, and speech acknowledgment. China’s rapid AI advancement has actually substantially impacted Chinese society in lots of locations, consisting of the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transport, lodging and food services, and production are the leading markets that would be the most impacted by further AI implementation.
The economic sector, university laboratories, and the military are working collaboratively in lots of elements as there are couple of current existing limits. [4] In 2021, China published the Data Security Law of the People’s Republic of China, its first nationwide law addressing AI-related ethical issues. In October 2022, the United States federal government revealed a series of export controls and trade constraints meant to limit China’s access to innovative computer system chips for AI applications. [5] [6]
Concerns have actually been raised about the results of the Chinese government’s censorship routine on the development of generative artificial intelligence and skill acquisition with state of the nation’s demographics. [7] [8]
History
The research study and development of expert system in China started in the 1980s, with the statement by Deng Xiaoping of the value of science and innovation for China’s economic growth. [3]
Late 1970s to early 2010s
Expert system research study and development did not begin up until the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms. [3] While there was a lack of AI-related research study between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars believe this is because of the influence of cybernetics from the Soviet Union regardless of the Sino-Soviet split throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese researchers introduced AI research study led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, throughout the time, China’s society still had an usually conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI development in China was tough so China’s government approached these obstacles by sending Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and more providing federal government funds for research jobs. The Chinese Association for Artificial Intelligence (CAAI) was established in September 1981 and was authorized by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who received a PhD in philosophy from Harvard University. [citation needed] In 1987, China’s very first research publication on synthetic intelligence was released by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, wise automation and intelligence have actually become part of China’s national innovation strategy. [9]
Since the 2000s, the Chinese federal government has actually further broadened its research study and advancement funds for AI and the number of government-sponsored research study projects has actually considerably increased. [3] In 2006, China revealed a policy priority for the development of expert system, which was consisted of in the National Medium and Long Term Prepare For the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), launched by the State Council. [2] In the very same year, synthetic intelligence was likewise discussed in the eleventh five-year plan. [11]
In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) developed a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At exact same year, the Wu Wenjun Artificial Intelligence Science and Technology Award was founded in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it ended up being the greatest award for Chinese achievements in the field of expert system. The first award ceremony was hung on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Expert System (IJCAI) was held in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was held in China. This occasion corresponded with the Chinese government’s statement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a substantial milestone in China’s advancement of synthetic intelligence. [12]
Late 2010s to early 2020s
The State Council of China issued “A Next Generation Expert System Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the file, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council urged governing bodies in China to promote the development of synthetic intelligence. Specifically, the strategy explained AI as a strategic innovation that has become a “focus of international competitors”. [14]:2 The document prompted significant investment in a number of strategic areas connected to AI and required close cooperation between the state and personal sectors. On the event of CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the first plenary meeting of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University composed in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” in between financial and military ends is a necessary component to being an excellent power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”expert system plus” was proposed to be raised to a tactical level. [16] The same year witnessed the introduction of several application-level uses in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) established their AI processor chip research study laboratory in Nanjing, and introduced their very first AI specialization chip, Cambrian. [citation needed]
In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in partnership with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, launched its very first synthetic intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]
In 2018, the State Council budgeted $2.1 billion for an AI industrial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to attain this the State Council mentioned the need for massive skill acquisition, theoretical and practical advancements, as well as public and private investments. [14] Some of the specified inspirations that the State Council offered for pursuing its AI strategy include the capacity of expert system for commercial transformation, better social governance and preserving social stability. [14] Since the end of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI business throughout foundational, technical, and application layers, with related markets valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]
In 2019, the application of expert system expanded to different fields such as quantum physics, location, and medical research study. With the introduction of large language designs (LLMs), at the beginning of 2020, Chinese scientists began establishing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal large model called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]
The Beijing Academy of Expert system launched China’s very first big scale pre-trained language design in 2022. [24] [25]:283
In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, and the Ministry of Public Security collectively released the guidelines concerning deepfakes, which ended up being reliable in January 2023. [26]
In July 2023, Huawei released its variation 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]
In July 2023, China launched its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Expert System Services. [28]:96 A draft proposal on basic generative AI services safety requirements, including requirements for data collection and design training was provided in October 2023. [28]:96
Also in October 2023, the Chinese government launched its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Community of Common Destiny and intends to construct AI policy dialogue with developing countries. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has actually revealed concern over AI security dangers, including abuse of information or the use of AI by terrorists. [28]:93
In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda project of the Ministry of Public Security, started using news anchors produced with generative expert system to provide fake news clips. [18]
In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang introduced the AI+ Initiative, which plans to integrate AI into China’s real economy. [28]:95
In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China revealed that it rolled out a large language design trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]
According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s largest LLM market show 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in revenue over the in 2015. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the 3rd largest. The fourth and 5th biggest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong listed AI business 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were applauded by financiers as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI models had actually been approved by the Chinese federal government. [33]
As of 2024, numerous Chinese technology companies such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have actually introduced AI video-generation tools to competing OpenAI’s Sora. [34]
Chronology of significant AI-related policies
Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Information Technology; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs
National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Infotech
Government goals
According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a Brand-new American Security, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping – thinks that being at the forefront of AI technology will be crucial to the future of international military and financial power competitors. [35] By 2025, the State Council goes for China to make fundamental contributions to fundamental AI theory and to strengthen its place as a worldwide leader in AI research study. Further, the State Council goes for AI to end up being “the main driving force for China’s commercial upgrading and financial change” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council intends to have China be the global leader in the development of synthetic intelligence theory and innovation. The State Council declares that China will have developed a “fully grown new-generation AI theory and technology system.” [14]
According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese government “seeks to meld state preparation and control while some functional versatility for firms. In this context, China’s AI firms are hybrid players. The state guides their activity, funds, and shields them from foreign competition through domestic market protections, creating asymmetric benefits as they expand offshore.” [36]
The CCP’s fourteenth five-year plan reaffirmed AI as a leading research study top priority and ranks AI first among “frontier industries” that the Chinese government aims to focus on through 2035. [3] The AI market is a tactical sector typically supported by China’s federal government guidance funds. [37]:167
Research and development
Chinese public AI financing primarily focused on sophisticated and applied research. [38] The government financing likewise supported several AI R&D in the private sector through endeavor capitals that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic company research showed that, while China is massively buying all elements of AI development, facial acknowledgment, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and self-governing lorries are AI sectors with the most attention and financing. [39]
According to national guidance on developing China’s state-of-the-art industrial advancement zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county picked as an experimental development zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI innovation in experimental areas. However, the focus of AI R&D differed depending upon cities and regional commercial development and community. For example, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong manufacturing market, heavily focuses on automation and AI facilities while Wuhan focuses more on AI implementations and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech companies, and nationwide ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI labs. [25]:282
In 2016 and 2017, Chinese teams won the leading reward at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a worldwide competition for computer system vision systems. [41] A lot of these systems are now being incorporated into China’s domestic monitoring network. [42]
Interdisciplinary collaborations play a vital role in China’s AI R&D, consisting of academic-corporate partnership, public-private cooperations, and global partnerships and tasks with corporate-government collaborations are the most typical. [1] China ranked in the top 3 worldwide following the United States and the European Union for the overall number of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic partnership in between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China went beyond the U.S. in 2020 in the total variety of international AI-related journal citations. [43] In regards to AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI papers are primarily sponsored by the federal government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Expert system launched the world’s largest pre-trained language model (WuDao). [44]
Since 2023, 47% of the world’s leading AI researchers had actually finished their undergraduate studies in China. [28]:101
According to scholastic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese government has actually been proactive in regulating AI services and imposing commitments on AI companies, the general technique to its regulation is loose and shows a pro-growth policy beneficial to China’s AI market. [28]:96 In July 2024, the government opened its very first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]
Population
China’s large population generates a massive amount of accessible data for companies and researchers, which provides a crucial advantage in the race of big information. As of 2024 [upgrade], China has the world’s largest number of internet users, generating huge amounts of data for artificial intelligence and AI applications. [46]:18
Facial recognition
Facial acknowledgment is one of the most widely used AI applications in China. Collecting these large quantities of data from its locals helps additional train and broaden AI abilities. China’s market is not just favorable and valuable for corporations to more AI R&D however likewise provides incredible financial possible bring in both international and domestic firms to sign up with the AI market. The drastic advancement of the info and communication technology (ICT) industry and AI chipsets recently are two examples of this. [47] China has actually become the world’s biggest exporter of facial acknowledgment technology, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]
Censorship and material controls
In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) provided draft measures stating that tech business will be obligated to make sure AI-generated content upholds the ideology of the CCP consisting of Core Socialist Values, avoids discrimination, respects intellectual property rights, and safeguards user information. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft steps, business bear legal responsibility for training information and content created through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese federal government mandated that generative synthetic intelligence-produced content might not “incite subversion of state power or the overthrowing of the socialist system.” [51] Before releasing a large language model to the public, business should seek approval from the CAC to license that the design refuses to respond to particular questions connecting to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions related to politically delicate subjects such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre or contrasts in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh need to be decreased. [52]
In 2023, in-country gain access to was obstructed to Hugging Face, a business that keeps libraries including training data sets typically utilized for large language designs. [8] A subsidiary of individuals’s Daily, the official paper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, provides regional business with training data that CCP leaders consider acceptable. [8] In 2024, individuals’s Daily launched a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]
Microsoft has actually warned that the Chinese federal government uses generative expert system to interfere in foreign elections by spreading out disinformation and provoking conversations on dissentious political problems. [54] [55] [56]
The Chinese expert system model DeepSeek has actually been reported to refuse to address concerns relating to things about the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, contrasts in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]
Impact
Economic effect
Most companies [who?] hold positive views about AI’s financial effect on China’s long-lasting economic growth. In the past, standard industries in China have actually had problem with the boost in labor expenses due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the deployment of AI, functional costs are expected to decrease while a boost in performance generates profits development. [60] Some highlight the importance of a clear policy and governmental assistance in order to overcome adoption barriers including expenses and lack of correctly trained technical skills and AI awareness. [61] However, there are issues about China’s deepening income inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income employees might be the most negatively impacted by China’s AI advancement since of rising demands for laborers with innovative abilities. [61] Furthermore, China’s economic growth might be disproportionately divided as a bulk of AI-related commercial advancement is focused in seaside areas rather than inland. [61]
An influential choice by the Beijing Internet Court has actually ruled that AI-generated content is entitled to copyright security. [28]:98
Military effect
China seeks to construct a “first-rate” armed force by “intelligentization” with a particular focus on using unmanned weapons and artificial intelligence. [62] [63] It is investigating various types of air, land, sea, and undersea self-governing automobiles. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military demonstrated an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 unoccupied aerial lorries at an airshow. A media report released later on showed a computer system simulation of a similar swarm formation finding and destroying a rocket launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications showed that China is also developing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese advancement of military AI is mostly affected by China’s observation of U.S. plans for defense development and fears of a broadening “generational gap” in comparison to the U.S. military. Similar to U.S. military concepts, China aims to utilize AI for making use of big troves of intelligence, creating a common operating image, and accelerating battleground decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is thought about China’s reaction to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) method, which looks for to integrate sensors and weapons with AI and an energetic network. [65] [66]
Twelve classifications of military applications of AI have been identified: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, intelligent munitions, smart satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software, automated cyber defense software, automated cyberattack software, decision support, software application, automated missile launch software, and cognitive electronic warfare software. [67]
China’s management of its AI environment contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In general, couple of boundaries exist between Chinese industrial business, university lab, the military, and the main federal government. As an outcome, the Chinese federal government has a direct methods of guiding AI development priorities and accessing technology that was seemingly established for civilian functions. To even more reinforce these ties the Chinese government produced a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is intended to speed the transfer of AI technology from business companies and research institutions to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese government is leveraging both lower barriers to information collection and lower costs of data identifying to create the large databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one price quote, China is on track to possess 20% of the world’s share of data by 2020, with the possible to have more than 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12
China’s centrally directed effort is investing in the U.S. AI market, in business dealing with militarily relevant AI applications, potentially giving it legal access to U.S. innovation and copyright. [69] Chinese equity capital investment in U.S. AI business between 2010 and 2017 amounted to an approximated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration released an executive order to avoid foreign financial investments, “especially those from rival or adversarial countries,” from buying U.S. technology companies, due to U.S. national security concerns. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. innovations in which Chinese federal government has actually been investing, including “microelectronics, synthetic intelligence, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] innovative tidy energy.” [71] [72]
In 2024, researchers from the People’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have established a military tool utilizing Llama, which Meta Platforms said was unauthorized due to its model usage restriction for military functions. [73] [74]
Academia
Although in 2004, Peking University introduced the very first academic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to embrace AI as a discipline, especially considering that China deals with challenges in recruiting and keeping AI engineers and scientists. [21] Over half of the data scientists in the United States have actually been working in the field for over 10 years, while approximately the same proportion of information researchers in China have less than 5 years of experience. As of 2017, less than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused professionals and research items. [61]:8 Although China went beyond the United States in the variety of research study papers produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its released documents, as evaluated by peer citations, ranked 34th worldwide. [75] China particularly desire to attend to military applications therefore the Beijing Institute of Technology, among China’s premier institutes for weapons research study, just recently developed the first kids’s instructional program in military AI worldwide. [76]
In 2019, 34% of Chinese trainees studying in the AI field stayed in China for work. [77] According to a database kept by an American thinktank, the percentage increased to 58% in 2022. [77]
Ethical concerns
For the previous years, there are discussions about AI security and ethical concerns in both personal and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology published the very first nationwide ethical standard, ‘the New Generation of Expert System Ethics Code’ on the topic of AI with particular focus on user protection, data personal privacy, and security. [78] This document acknowledges the power of AI and quick innovation adjustment by the huge corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that people will remain in full decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Expert system released the Beijing AI principles calling for essential needs in long-lasting research study and planning of AI ethical principles. [79]
Data security has been the most common subject in AI ethical discussion worldwide, and lots of nationwide governments have developed legislation addressing information privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of individuals’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 aiming to resolve brand-new obstacles raised by AI development. [80] [initial research study?] In 2021, China’s brand-new Data Security Law (DSL) was passed by the PRC congress, setting up a regulative framework categorizing all sort of information collection and storage in China. [81] This suggests all tech companies in China are needed to categorize their data into categories noted in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow specific standards on how to govern and deal with information transfers to other parties. [81]
Judicial system
In 2019, the city of Hangzhou established a pilot program synthetic intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disagreements associated with ecommerce and internet-related copyright claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court via videoconference and AI examines the proof provided and applies appropriate legal standards. [82]:124
Because some controversial cases that drew public criticism for their low punishments have been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are issues about whether AI based on fragmented judicial data can reach impartial choices. [83] Zhang Linghan, professor of law at the China University of Government and Law, writes that AI-technology business may wear down judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing celebration leadership, political oversight, and minimizing the discretionary space of judges are intentional objectives of SCR [clever court reform]” [85]
Leading companies
Leading AI-centric companies and start-ups include Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI companies iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have received attention for facial acknowledgment, sound acknowledgment and drone innovations. [87]
China’s federal government takes a market-oriented method to AI, and has actually looked for to encourage private tech companies in establishing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champions”. [25]:281
In 2023, Tencent debuted its large language model Hunyuan for business usage on Tencent Cloud. [88]
New leading AI start-ups include Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were applauded by financiers as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has actually likewise been touted as a leading startup. [89]
Assessment
Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese government’s dedication to worldwide AI leadership and technological competitors was driven by its previous underperformance in innovation which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of humiliation. [90] According to Zeng, there are traditionally embedded causes of China’s anxiety towards protecting a global technological supremacy – China missed both industrial transformations, the one starting in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that came from America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s government desires to take benefit of the technological transformation in today’s world led by digital technology consisting of AI to resume China’s “rightful” place and to pursue the nationwide restoration proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]
A post released by the Center for a Brand-new American Security concluded that “Chinese government authorities showed incredibly eager understanding of the problems surrounding AI and worldwide security. This includes knowledge of the U.S. AI policy conversations,” and advised that “the U.S. policymaking community to likewise prioritize cultivating knowledge and understanding of AI advancements in China” and “financing, focus, and a determination among U.S. policymakers to drive massive required modification.” [35] An article in the MIT Technology Review likewise concluded: “China may have unparalleled resources and huge untapped potential, however the West has world-leading proficiency and a strong research study culture. Instead of stress over China’s progress, it would be smart for Western countries to concentrate on their existing strengths, investing greatly in research and education. ” [91]
The Chinese federal government’s censorship program has stunted the development of generative expert system [7] [8]
In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations composed that the development of AI develops obstacles for holistic national security, including the risks that AI will increase social stress or have destabilizing effects on global relations. [28]:49
Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics including Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong contend that capitalist application of AI will lead to higher oppression of workers and more major social issues. [28]:90 Gao points out how the advancement of AI has increased the power of platform companies like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, causing higher capital build-up and political power in less financial stars. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state ought to be the primary responsible actor in the area of generative AI (producing brand-new content like music or video). [28]:92 Gao writes that military usage of AI dangers escalating military competitors between nations and that the impact of AI in military matters will not be limited to one nation but will have spillover results. [28]:91
Dialogues between Chinese and Western AI specialists about the existential threat from artificial intelligence have occurred. [92]
Public polling
The Chinese public is typically optimistic concerning AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 research study performed throughout 28 nations found that 78% of the Chinese public believes the benefits of AI exceed the risks, the highest of any nation in the study. [25]:283 In 2024, a survey of elite Chinese university trainees found that 80% concurred or highly agreed that AI will do more excellent than damage for society, and 31% thought it needs to be controlled by the government. [93]
Human rights
The extensively used AI facial recognition has raised concerns. [94] According to The New York City Times, deployment of AI facial acknowledgment innovation in the Xinjiang region to identify Uyghurs is “the first known example of a government deliberately using expert system for racial profiling,” [95] which is stated to be “among the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have discovered that in China, locations experiencing greater rates of discontent are connected with increased state acquisition of AI facial recognition technology, particularly by regional municipal authorities departments. [97] [98]
Expert system.
Artificial intelligence arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer system
List of artificial intelligence companies
Regulation of artificial intelligence
References
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Further reading
Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.